UNESCO’s Initiative for the Aral Sea Basin

(Tashkent, November 6, 1998)

The final meeting of the 155^th Session of the UNESCO Executive Council was held in Tashkent on November 6, 1998. Besides a report and different organizational questions, three documents devoted to world culture development were adopted at the session. The first document – a consolidated report for the UN on world culture, the second document – on assessment of trans-disciplinary project “On the Way to World Culture”. The third document was a draft of decision “World Culture and the UNESCO Activities in the UNESCO member-states” proposed by Uzbekistan. President of Uzbekistan Islam Karimov made a speech at the Session. Speaking about the UNESCO activities, The Director-General of UNESCO Federico Major said that the keystones of the UNESCO activities in the cause of preservation of peace were science, education and culture and this was concordant with the policy the government of Uzbekistan pursues. The Tashkent Declaration adopted at the Session breathes a spirit of belief and hope that mankind’s entering into the forthcoming millenary is based on world culture, is free from such evils as war, violence, and social inequality. The Dirctor-General F. Major put forward a UNESCO Initiative for the Aral Sea Basin.

Central Asia is a historical crossroads of civilizations, the area where East meets West, North meets South and East meets East. It is an area that was shaped by its unique history, an area of incredible ethnic diversity with proven record of its ability to resurrect itself. Now this microcosm of human coexistence and tolerance is itself at the crossroads. The joint task of the World Community, political leaders, donor agencies and individuals is to assist newly independent states to preserve their rich cultural heritage, ethnic diversity, tolerance, high educational standard and to find a sustainable way to develop their natural resources. The Central Asian Republics have already created both the political basis through a joint declaration of head of states in Nukus (January 1994) and the executive intergovernmental agency – the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea (IFAS) as the coordinating and implementing agency for rehabilitation and development efforts.

The shrinking Aral Sea is the most visible sign of environmental disaster of the Aral Sea Basin. By now, the sea level had decreased by 18,0 m and the desertification of the Aral Sea Zone continues on an unprecedented scale. The lacustrine ecosystem ceased to exist, the wetlands are heavily damaged, these changes are of catastrophic consequences for the economic activities and health. Water and wind erosion, water logging and land salinization, massive use of agrochemicals in agriculture resulted in decrease in soil productivity arousing serious concern and leads to worsening of ecological and social problems in the Aral Sea Basin. Given the lack of drinking water of good quality and sewage system in a big territory of the basin, water pollution in rivers attributive to collector drainage water discharge in big volume as well as poorly treated effluents discharge increases the danger of diseases among the population,. A rational and sustainable development of water resources is an urgent task and a coordinated political activity of all participating states is required to fulfill this task. A new situation in the basin requires changes in approaches in the framework of which it is necessary to develop effective principles and procedure for sustainable management of water and other natural resources. Many technical solutions improving the situation in the area have been proposed before but very little has been done yet in comparison with what might have been required, given the scope of the problem.

The important aspect of UNESCO approach is in support of optimistic and at the same time realistic vision of the future of the Aral Sea and its basin, that opposes pessimistic vision and lack of hope. Along with this, giving prominence to trans-disciplinary interaction of social and natural sciences, such an approach will facilitate mobilization of political will and scientific knowledge. The UNESCO programs IHP, MAB and MOST are well placed to foster these initiatives. Since 1994, UNESCO with support of the Ministry of Science and Technology of Germany has been assisting scientists from Central Asia to continue their studies in the Aral Sea deltas. In 1998 UNESCO established the Scientific Advisory Board on the Aral Sea Basin (SABAS) and conducted three meetings of this Board.

In March 1999, UNESCO launched a project “Long - Term Water-Related Vision for the Aral Sea Basin. National task groups consisting of leading scientists of Academy of Sciences, R&D Centers and different agencies were organized. For a comparatively short period of time, the five working groups prepared reports on perspectives of development of the Aral Sea basin up to the years 2025-2050 including forecasts of countries’ demography, development of economy, agriculture, animal husbandry, use of water resources, irrigated farming, development of biotechnology, ecology, and provision of foodstuff for the population. At the same time, a mathematical model for an analysis of possible scenarios of the area development is being worked .out by a well-known scientist, Professor M. Mesarovic and his research team from Case Western Reserve University (USA). Preliminary results of this project were reported by Dr. J. Bogardi, head of the Section on Sustainable Water Resources Development and Management of UNESCO at the session of regional Water Vision in Stockholm on August 12-15, 1999 that was conducted within the framework of the Stockholm Water Symposium. Dr. G. Hasanhanova, a member of the task group was invited at the meeting and made a report on the Perspectives of the Aral Sea Basin for Uzbekistan. At the next meetings the regional Vision will be refined and amended so that it could be submitted in its final form at the Second World Water Forum and at the Conference of Ministers on March 17-22, 2000 in The Hague. This function will be preceded by the UNESCO Regional Meeting “Water and Peace in Central Asia” that will be held in Ashgabat on 29-30 November 1999. The main goal of this meeting is a better mutual understanding of all aspects related to water and peace in the Region. The meeting is supposed to consider a number of questions including renewal of traditional approaches to water, development of new attitudes towards water and increase of population’s awareness, development of principles of resolution of conflicts attributable to water resources management and criteria for socially and economically just use of water in the Aral Sea Basin. At the meeting political personalities making decisions (ministers) will also discuss a UNESCO proposal on problems of water use prepared by the members of SABAS, IFAS/GEF so that to receive specific answers and proposals from them. The problem of peace is given a broader interpretation such as peace between nations, between different water users, between mankind and nature.

The UNESCO Initiative is aimed at improvement of situation in the Aral Sea Basin, stimulation of activities of governments and support of the world community so that to encourage hope and optimism among a wide public and all parties concerned to overcome the crisis in the region.

3. Indicators for Environment Aspects of Sustainable Development*

3.1. Water Resources

3.1.1. Protection of the quality and supply of freshwater resources embraces the following aspects:

- annual ground and surface water withdrawal

- per capita domestic water consumption

- concentration of fecal coliforms in freshwater

- biochemical oxygen demand in water bodies

- waste water treatment coverage

- density of hydrologic networks.

The annual withdrawal of water resources in percents of total volume characterizes their fragility and scarcity. All types of water losses and use, and return water are taken into account. The use of water resources reflects social and economic factors, and influences economic development. The increase in irrigated land area makes a considerable impact on nations’ economies. To prevent a double count it is necessary to exclude reusing of water resources and rotation cycle water systems. When using water resources it is necessary to take into consideration a seasonable inequality of water resources distribution, and current data obtained with the use of mathematical models and to use date recorded by FAO– in AQUASTAT (1994-1995). At the same time, it is necessary to consider ecological requirements, to optimize water consumption and price formation, to take measures to reduce water scarcity and reallocate water from agriculture to other branches of economy such as industry to use water efficient technologies, etc. Domestic water supply characterizes the health of population, creates conditions for cooking, washing, watering gardens, and provision of water for domestic animals. The UNSED (Rio) Program Agenda 21 envisages provision of safe water for urban population in the volume over 40 liters per day as well as improvement of water supply for rural population.

The indicators of ground water reserves are being under development.

The main reason of morbidity and mortality of population caused by water factor is a fecal pollution of drinking water contributing to acute intestinal diseases due to the presence of fecal streptococcus, thermo-resistant coliform bacterium, spores of sulfate reducing fungi, and cysts of parasites such as lamblias, ascarides, pinworms and others. It is important to reach water treatment level up to the norms of the World Health Organization (WHO), International Standardization Organization (ISO) and other organizations.

A biochemical oxygen demand or an alternative indicator – chemical oxygen demand – characterizes a total and partially oxidized organic substances in water is a compulsory indicator of the water quality assessment.

Availability of water-treating facilities and their wastewater treatment efficiency and wastewater disinfection before discharge into water bodies are one of main requirements of sustainable development without which there is no social and economic sustainability. The Program Agenda 21 plans to reach the volume and quality levels municipal and industrial waste water purification up to the normative requirements till the year 2000 in urban areas.

The density of monitoring hydrological network depends on physiographic and geographic conditions, quality and regime of water resources and should be determined individually on an area unit.

3.1.2. Protection of oceans, seas and coastal territories includes the assessment of the following indicators:

- population growth in coastal areas;

- petrochemicals effluent into the coastal waters;

- discharge of agricultural effluents containing nitrogen and phosphoric compounds;

- maximum sustained yield to fisheries;

- microalgae index.

These indicators are not important for the Central Asian Region with the exception of the Aral Sea, the Aral Sea Zone and big lakes.

3.2. Land Resources

3.2.1. Integrated Approach to Land Resources Planning and Management embraces such issues as

- land resources degradation;

- change in soil fertility;

- local land resources management.

Using satellite and ground surveys and applying FAO and UNEP methodology it is necessary to determine the ecological condition of land resources such as water and wind erosion processes, desertification, land ecosystem degradation, territorial distribution of ecologically dangerous objects including mineral resource industry, protected conservation areas and other facilities.

It is also necessary to develop a land survey for assessment of physical, chemical and biological conditions of soils, crop rotation system effects on cropping capacity, amelioration condition, agrochemical soil contamination, etc. A complex of measures aimed at degraded soil recultivation, improvement of melioration condition of saline soils and marshlands is being worked out on the basis of soil and melioration changes for the period of five – ten years. The GLASOD methodical (Global Assessment of the Status of Human-induced of Soil Degradation) can be used the process of desertification*

Local bodies control the efficiency of land resources use and management, observance of Protection and Increase of Soil Fertility Law. A methodological assistance in these issues is rendered by the World Conservation Union (IUCN).

3.2.2. Fragile Ecological Systems Management: deserts and arid zones considers the following factors:

- number of people living below poverty level in the arid zone;

- natural monthly rainfall index;

- vegetation cover index assessed by satellite surveys;

- lands subjected by desertification.

To map out a consequent course of action on the national level, it is necessary to assess the impact of economy on the management of arid lands and their degradation that leads to impoverishment of population.

Up to 25% of the territory of the globe is in the arid zone. When planning degrading land rehabilitation measures, it is important to make short-term and long-term forecasts of precipitation. It is worthwhile to use remote sensing, NOAA – satellites of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (USA) and SPOT (France) in particular – to control biomass of plants, processes of desertification and to develop nature preservation measures. International Organizations – FAO, UNEP, the National Institute of Population and Environment Health (Netherlands), the Soil Degradation Program (GLASOD) and other organizations – are engaged in the organizational and methodological work in this direction.

3.2.3. Management of Fragile Ecological Systems, and Sustainable Development of Mountain Regions is based on the following indicators:

- population change in the mountain areas;

- sustainable use of natural resources;

- welfare of people living in mountain areas.

It is necessary to manage fragile mountain ecological systems by means of control over the population density, social and economic conditions, migration, land use condition and other parameters. Exercising a control over these parameters, it is necessary to identify degrading soils, determine the carrying capacity of the territories and prevent the risk of landslides, and mud floods by reducing overgrazing, forest and shrub clearing. A sustainable development of these zones requires balanced agriculture practice for strengthening of the economy of mountain territories and liquidation of impoverishment.

3.2.4. Sustainable Development of Rural areas and Agriculture requires a control over the following indicators:

- use of pesticides;

- -use of mineral fertilizers;

- irrigation of arable lands;

- energy use in agriculture;

- specific area of cultivated lands per capita;

- land area subjected to water logging and salinization;

- agricultural education.

A sustainable development of agriculture requires a strict control over the use of pesticides, their persistency, their capability to accumulate in soil and biota, to migrate along the food chain and their capability to be leached together with soil, etc.

The same holds true for mineral fertilizers. It is necessary to reduce the volume of used fertilizers per unit of area, assess their migration in the environment and their leaching into water bodies that cause eutrophication, make a calculation of the nutrient balance in soil and manage this process by active crop rotation, to use organic fertilizers and remains of plants. It is necessary to prevent the consequences of monoculture as an indicator of agriculture instability, introduce high yielders. These measures should be aimed at producing safe foodstuff. To use the power productively the power consumption should be controlled at all stages of agricultural production. Excessive energy consumption attributes to increase of environment pollution waste, global warming of climate and other consequences. It is necessary to make an energy balance for all crops during their growth; to assess the decrease in land capacity resulting from water logging and salination, excessive moistening, and overirrigation as well as scarce water resources and reuse of saline water. It is necessary to improve education of farmers so that they could gain access to the information on advanced technology of agriculture.

3.3. Other Natural Resources

3.3.1. Combating deforestation should consider such indicators as

- intensity of deforestation;

- forest area change;

- managed forest area ratio;

- protected forest area as a percent of total forest area.

Forest area plays a significant complex ecological, social and economic, and climatic role in the life of population. They serve in recreation purposes, facilitate biodiversity of animals and plants, accumulation of water resources, prevention of water and wind erosion, atmospheric air pollution, creation of microclimate, and provide the population with building materials. According to FAO conception, the total forest area should reach 10% of the total country’s area.

The coordination and methodological assistance in conservation of forests and creation of protected area, rehabilitation of tugai forests is rendered by international organizations, the World Conservation Union (IUCN), the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the World Conservation Monitoring Center (WCWC).

3.3.2. Biodiversity preservation embraces the following indicators:

- threatened species as a percentage of total native species;

- protected areas (in percents of total area).

The existing biodiversity of wildlife is very important for the life of ecosystems, therefore, the loss of one or several species leads to vanishing of a balanced ecological system. For sustainable biodiversity, it is necessary to reduce the number of treatened species up to 1% of total number of species. The strategy of sustainable development is focused on expanding the countries’ protected area conservation up to 10% of total area by the year 2000. The same issues were included into the agenda of the Forth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Area in 1992.

3.3.3. Pollution-free technology includes:

- research and development expenditure for biotechnology;

- improvement of biological safety control.

Biotechnology has an enormous potential for improvement of population health, increase of food production, intensification of reforestation, industrialization of agriculture, fodder production, decontamination of water, the cleaning-up of hazardous wastes, finding technological solutions for processing of biological resources and for ensuring a sustainable ecological development.

The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) is a coordinator and organizer of studies on effective biotechnological processes.

(to be continued)

World Water Demand and Supply (1990-2025):

Scenarios and Issues. IWMI. Research Report N19*

(D. Seckler, U. Amarasinghe, D. Molden, R. de Silva, R. Barker)

Entering the twenty first century, many countries of the world suffer a severe scarcity of water resources. The scientists of the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) conduct complex studies analyzing the use of water resources in the world and develop a conceptual framework for solution of management and water resources scarcity problems. When assessing water resources scarcity, the authors used the earlier developed approach (Falkenmark et al., 1989) called “a standard criterion.” Thus, if the annual water consumption per capita in the country equals 1700 m³, a local and temporary water scarcity is observed. If these norms are reduced up to 1000 m³, the water scarcity effects the human well-being, population’s health and economic development of the country. If the norms of water use are very low (less than 500 m³ per capita) the water scarcity threatens the life of population.

Another criterion of water scarcity assessment worked out by a group of scientists is named UN indicator (Raskin et al.,1997). Water withdrawal from available water sources exceeding 40% of total volume range the country in class of water scarcity.

Using the combination of these two criteria, and considering all main water users including municipal, industry and irrigation, the authors ranked 118 countries containing 93% of the world’s population (with the exception of the former Soviet Union countries) by utilization of water resources and the level of their scarcity from 1990 up to 2025. So far as the biggest water consumer is irrigated farming that uses 70-90% of available water resources in a number of countries, two scenarios were considered in its analysis. One of them is a traditional scenario using existing trends and technologies of irrigation. In perspective, the second scenario envisages highly effective use of water in agriculture that will make it possible to find additional water resources.

The data of the World Resources Institute (WRI, 1996) were used as initial indicators in the analysis of water balance. The constituents of the water resources balance are water supply, water withdrawal, evaporation, infiltration, precipitation, and water drainage outside the country. Return flows determine potential water resources of the country. Part of return flows belongs to the used water resources. Some water resources are practically unusable, for example, monsoon and typhoon waters flowing into the sea in the form of flood flows. To determine the time of water scarcity manifestation it is necessary to use not only average month runoff data but also decade indicators. The water resources taken from the sources are distributed among economic sector water users including irrigation, municipal, industry, and ecological needs. Methodologically, the last indicator is insufficiently substantiated, but its requirements are increasing from year to year (conservation of unique water bodies, lakes – the Aral, the Solton Sea (USA) – biodiversity – migrating birds, fish, plants, etc.).

Insufficient WRI data for 1996 were supplemented by data from other sources (FAO, Shiklomanov, 1997* , etc.) that include water resources, population, trends of water consumption sectorwise, irrigated areas, methodological indicators for calculation of plants water consumption, evapotranspiration, etc. To forecast the population growth the UN data (UN, 1994)** were used. These data presuppose a decrease in the population growth rate, and hence water consumption. By 2040, the stabilization of world population growth is supposed to be at the level of 8 billion people.

Initial data used in Table 1 include specific water consumption for municipal needs, irrigation, consumption in industry per capita. Also presented countrywise irrigated area (net), total irrigation withdrawals, annual intensity of irrigation, irrigation norms, etc. The Numerical model makes it possible to forecast water resources use in 2025. In case of scenario One, the efficiency of irrigation in 2025 remains the same as in 1990. The current technical level and irrigation system operations also remain unchanged but it takes into account the population growth. Thus, according to this scenario, the amount of water used for irrigation in the world will have constituted 3,376 km³ by 2025, which is equivalent to 62% of population growth. Scenario Two envisages a high efficiency of irrigated system and irrigation technology which are calculated to be 70% for many countries. To achieve this indicator significant capital investments will be required. Nowadays, this indicator for developing countries is 30-60%. In the process of realization of this scenario the amount of water used for irrigation in the countries of the world will have increased by 17% by 2025, while in the first scenario this increase will constitute 62% which is equivalent to 944 km³ of water. These serious questions require additional studies, namely:

- increase in efficiency of irrigating systems does not produce a simultaneous increase of foodstuff per capita or per unit of water discharge. An adequate improvement of seeds, agrotechnology, optimization of fertilizer use, increase of efficiency of irrigation technique as well as other improvements will be required;

- irrigation is important for increase of foodstuff. At the same time it is necessary to develop dry land farming which is ecologically more expedient and doesn’t require big economic expenditures;

- water availability during the drought periods cannot be guaranteed, the problem of unequal water resources distribution in different regions of the country cannot be solved. Thus with the excess of water in the South of China, its scarcity (only 20% of total volume of water resources) is felt in the Northern parts of the country where over 50% of population live;

- in countries with severe scarcity of water variants envisaging increase in import of foodstuff are possible, while water should be used for improvement of municipal water supply and development of industry.

The methodologies worked out before (Gleick, 1996)* that recommend to take on minimum values for municipal water supply of 20 m³ per capita a year (or 55 liters per day) and for industry 40 m³ per capita (109 litter per day) are used in forecasting municipal and industry water supply in 2025. Nowadays (1990), these figures for many African countries constitute less than 10 m³ per year. In forecasting for the year 2025, they are doubled. For developed countries, the dependence of specific norms of water consumption based on specific value of GDP per capita is proposed. In their calculations the authors forecast a 45% increase of water consumption in these sectors of economy by the year 2025 that will have constituted 1193 km³ for all countries of the world. In order to use secondary runoffs for ecological purposes and not to artificially increase available water resources, they are not included into calculations. The total water withdrawal for all sectors of economy by the year 2025 will have increased up to 3625 km³ (0r by 25%). By the values of the two indicators of water scarcity and their combination, all 118 countries of the world are divided into five groups.

In the First Group of countries covering mainly the Northern Africa and the Western Asia the total water withdrawal from the available water resources constitutes 50-100%, the population number being 8% of 118 countries under study. By the year 2025 the water withdrawal of these countries will have increased by 191% in comparison with that of in 1990.

The Second Group embraces 7% of the world population, mainly from African countries in the Sahara zone that is characterized by unfavorable conditions for agricultural production. When using water resources, in perspective it is expedient to develop small-scale irrigation and dry land farming. The water withdrawal volume will exceed 100% in comparison with 1990.

The Third Group embodies mainly developing countries with 16% of population in which the water consumption is forecast to increase from 25% to 99%.

The Fourth Group mainly includes developed countries with 16% of population in which by the year 2025 the volume of water withdrawal will have increased by 25% in comparison with that of in 1990. In this group are the biggest grain exporters in the world – USA and Canada, which in case of severe scarcity of grain can quickly increase the area of irrigated lands under grain.

The Fifth Group countries in the year 2025 practically maintain the level of water consumption achieved in 1990 and even decrease this volume. This group includes countries with 12% of population. China and India with population constituting 41% of total population are considered separately from these five groups. In these countries uneven territorial distribution of water resources is observed. In the zones of water resources scarcity, the nonrenewable underground water resources were pumped. These results in decrease in the level of ground water and its reserves. In these zones water reservoirs are built, water saving technologies such as drip irrigation are used, foodstuffs are imported, partial diversion from abundance zone into scarcity zone is planned.

Nowadays, in many countries the problem of water resources scarcity is underestimated both in terms of regional and annual as well as seasonable changes. The existing data base, information on efficiency of water resource use should be updated. The current article proposes to cover water resources scarcity by 50% by the year 2025 thanks to increase in efficiency of the existing irrigating systems, the rest 50% thanks to creation of small water reservoirs, combined use of surface and underground water, selective construction of big and average size dams.

Table 1 presents a current condition of water resources use by economy sectors and their forecast up to the year 2025 by characteristic countries and groups including India and China. Additional Table 2 shows the area of irrigated lands and the annual water consumption by crops countries-wise.

Introduction to Table 1. Description of Columns in Table 1

Column	Description	Data input or Calculation	Units
с1	1990 - population	Data	million
с2	Population growth from 1990 to 2025	Data	%
с3	Annual water resources (AWR)	Data	km³
с4	Total withdrawals in 1990	Data	km³
с5	Per capita domestic withdrawals in 1990	Data	m³
с6	Per capita industrial withdrawals in 1990	Data	m³
с7	Per capita irrigation withdrawals in 1990	Data	m³
с8	Net irrigated area in 1990	Data	1000 ha
с9	Total irrigation withdrawals in 1990	с7хс1/1000	km³
с10	Annual irrigation intensity	с15 in Appendix table В2	%
с11	Irr. WITH as a depth on gross irrigated area	с9/(с8хс10)х 100	m
с12	NET as a depth on gross irrigated area	с 17 in Appendix table B2	m
с13	Estimated irrigation effectiveness in 1990	с12/с11	%
с14	Assumed irrigation effectiveness	min (2хс13, 70%)	%
с15	Total irr. WITH in 2025 under scenerio 1 (S1)	с9хс2	km³
с16	Total irr. WITH in 2025 under scenerio 2 (S2)	с8хс10хс12/с14/100	km³
с17	S2: % change from 1990 irr. WITH	с16/с9-1	%
с18	S2 as a % of S1	ñ16/с19	%
с19	Total savins from S2	с15-с16	km³
с20	Per capita domestic WITH in 2025	see figure 3	m³
с21	Per capita industrial WITH in 2025	see figure3	m³
с22	Total domestic and industrial WITH in 2025	(с19+с20)хс1хс2/1000	km³
с23	% change from 1990 D&1 WITH	с22[с5+с6]xс1/1000-1	%
с24	Total WITH in 2025	с16+с22	km³
с25	Total additional withdrawals in 2025	с24-с4	km³
с26	Per capita internal renewable water supply in 2025	с3/(с1xс2)x1000	m³
с27	S1: % change from 1990 total WITH	(с15+с22)/с4-1	%
с28	S2: % change from 1990 total WITH	с24/с4-1	%
с29	2025 total withdrawal as % of IRWR	с24/с3	%

Acronyms: WITH - Water withdrawal

IRWR - irrigation water resources

Conception of Sustainable Development for the Republic of Uzbekistan

The National Commission for Sustainable Development for preparation of the conception and strategy of sustainable development in 1999 was established in Uzbekistan in 1997.

The formulated conception is based on the Principles and Agenda for the 21^st century, the UN Convention on Sustainable Development formulated in Rio in 1992. Yet it also takes into account the specifics and contemporary economic, social and ecological conditions and political environment of Uzbekistan. The country goes through a complex process of transition towards market economy in the conditions of unsustainable development of water and land resources use causing the Aral Sea crisis and aggravation of ecological situation in the Aral Sea Basin. The main task of the Convention is a transition of Uzbekistan towards effective and ecologically safe socially just development that takes into account the globalization processes. The Conception identifies the following priorities:

· Development of a perspective model and balanced development of economy and social structure for the period of 25-30 years

· A new civilized program of social development

· New principles of interaction of nature, economy and man

· Development of system of ecological, social, economic and political security

· Development of regional and global principles of integration into the world community, maintenance of good-neighborly relations with other countries of the world and mutually beneficial cooperation

The Conception substantiates the necessity of transition towards sustainable development, gives analyses of the current social, economic and ecological conditions of the country, shows the ways of step by step transition and realization of the principles of sustainable development for Uzbekistan.

A National Strategy of Sustainable Development of Uzbekistan is being currently developed by Macrostateconomic Ministry of Uzbekistan.

The Fourth Conference of Ministers “Environment for Europe”

(Aarhus, Denmark, June 23-26, 1998)

The fourth Conference of Ministers of Environment Protection was held in Aarhus, Denmark on June 23-25, 1998. The representatives of over 60 countries participated in the Conference. At the Conference, Dr. D. J. Beltran, Executive General Director of European Environment Agency (EEA), made a report “Environment for Europe: The Second Assessment” in which he made a detailed analysis and assessment of environment condition in Europe and identified tendencies, achievements and problems. The report revealed that on the whole, the ecological load on nature decreased, the quality of environment in Europe slightly improved. The report also revealed the necessity for additional efforts in the following sectors of economy:

- increase in the number of transport causes problems of air pollution, climatic changes, noise, traffic jams, and decrease in biodiversity. A development of public transport, non-motor and water transport is stimulated;

- agriculture requires considerable efforts to decrease ecological impact of agricultural practices, neutralization of ecological consequences of intensive development of animal production systems ;

- it is necessary to introduce energy conservation technologies, develop renewable energy resources

- it is necessary to study the influence of used chemicals on human health and the environment;

- intensify efforts to prevent soil degradation, efforts aimed at soil conservation and detoxication of contaminated areas;

- prevent a further growth of ecological pressure on biodiversity of natural resources, increase actions under the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy.

The Conference approved a joint statement of the Ministers of Environment of Central Asia who expressed the necessity of mutual cooperation, coordination of joint efforts and prepared a joint document “Central Asia: ecological assessment”. The Conference also approved the intention of the parties to organize a Regional Environmental Center (REC) for Central Asian Countries, that will be an analogue of the Center in Hungary for the Countries of Central and Eastern Europe, for the NIS countries in Kishenev, Kiev, Moscow and Tbilisi. The extension of the European Union created economic and ecological problems and stimulate for improvement of ecological situation in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) and newly independent states (NIS).

The Conference noted a significant role of non-governmental organizations (NGO) as a connecting link between the governments and the public, and their active actions in the processes of making decisions on ecological issues, discussion of projects and creation of public ecological opinion that are of importance for strengthening democracy in Europe. The rights of NGOs are significantly strengthened after signing the Aarhus Convention that sealed the rights of citizens to access to any ecological information and allows all conscious citizens and NGOs to fulfill their environment protection and improvement duty in the interests of the current and future generations.

The Conference finds the mechanism of ecological monitoring coordination, information collection and dissemination in the European region to be not effective enough. The next Conference was recommended to convene in four years in 2002 by the tenth anniversary of the Conference in Rio. The host country of the Conference might be one of the NIS countries. A report on improvement of monitoring system and liquidation of negative ecological changes in a number of countries CEE will have been prepared by this time. The material “Environment for Europe” facilitated the strengthening of dialogue and cooperation in the field of ecology in Europe. This ecological model developed in Europe can successfully be used in other countries, therefore, conclusions and recommendations should be widely disseminated and introduced. The international financial and donor organizations are recommended to render assistance to the NIS countries with transitional economies and experiencing financial difficulties in implementation of ecological projects, particularly, in development of pilot and demonstrative projects, especially on transboundary global facilities.

Water: A Looming Crisis?

International Conference on World Water Resources at the Beginning of the 21^st Century

(UNESCO, Paris, June 3-6, 1998)

The current Conference was organized in the framework of the International Hydrological Program, UNESCO. The role of water as a vital resource for ensuring future economic and social development of countries increases. The countries of arid and semi-arid zones are facing the problems of water sharing on transboundary rivers, use of underground water that has become scarce and might provoke a conflict situation. The organizers of the UNESCO Conference, The World Water Committee (WWC) and the International Association of Hydrological Science (IAHS) hope that the material and recommendations of the conference will help to overcome the difficulties of rational water resources management for increase of living standards of mankind and prevention of the coming crisis. The editorial staff of the bulletin conceives duty to acquaint the ecologists, specialists in water management and others with the proceedings of this Conference that is also topical for the Central Asian countries that are passing through crisis due to unsustainable use of water resources. For the reasons of space, we give a sample annotation of the most interesting reports made at the conference. The contents of the works presented at the Conference:

Section A. – State of knowledge on water resources of the world including both quantitative and qualitative aspects.

A.1. Monograph on World Water Resources at the beginning of the 21^st century –Main findings Includes four reports of Prof. I. Shiklomanov and his colleagues.

A.2. Water resources at global level – impact on health, food and environment. Four reports were made.

Section B. Main themes of the conference

Theme 1. Data and improvement of water resources assessment

16 reports were made.

Theme 2. Water quality and environmental impact

12 reports were made.

Theme 3. Impact of human activity on water resources

15 reports were made

Theme 4. The extremes of water resources and their management

16 reports were made

Theme 5. Economic and social aspects of Water Resources

17 reports were made

Addendum: 2 reports

Professor I. A. Shiklomanov (Russia) presented new data on the dynamics of renewable water resources on the continents. The author gave world water balance in view of water consumption by sectors of economy and made a forecast for the future, to 2010-2025. The report analyses a long-term change and use of water resources water reserves depending on climatic factors and social and economic conditions. The modern water withdrawal in the world is 3750 km³/yr, consumption – 2280 km³/yr. In the future water withdrawal will grow by about 10-12% every decade and will have reached 5200 km³/yr by 2025. 86% of total water consumption falls on agriculture. In the future, this value the role of agriculture will decrease due to increase in industrial and municipal water consumption. By the year 2025 the irrigated area will have increased by 76 mill ha or by 30%. The water use in industry will increase by 1,5 –3 times in different countries and it is assessed depending on the specific water use per one ton of final products, one kilowatt of energy consumption per one million roubles, etc. Municipal water consumption in big modern cities is 300-600 liters/day, in developing countries, in social sector, 50-100 liters/day. Considerable increase in drinking water supply and sanitation is observed in the Pacific Ocean countries, thus in China this value increased from 20% in 1980 to 66% in 1988.

P. R. Epstein (USA) Water, the limiting factor for human development is used in direct relation to health for agriculture, cooking and basic hygiene. Morbidity and mortality from enteric disease are correlated with the quality of running water for domestic use, and the geographic distribution of surface water has direct implications for diarrhea, skin diseases as well as rodent-borne diseases like malaria, schistosomiasis, mosquito-borne diseases like tropical fever and yellow fever and other diseases stemming from viruses.

Considerable climatic changes resulting from the doubling of atmospheric CO₂ alter the world’s hydrological cycle and raise both evaporation and precipitation globally by 7-15%. The increase of the cycle of droughts and floods have implications for agricultural production and water-borne diseases. Extreme weather events have increased, thus in the US heavy rain events have increased by 20% (>50 mm/day) Heavy rains and flooding of the Mississippi affected the quality of water in Lake Michigan and Milwaukee’s water cleaning system functioning in 1993. The result was over 400,000 cases of Cryptosporidious and over 100 deaths. In Latin America, flooding is associated with outbreaks of cholera, salmonella and hepatitis. Insects and rodents that quickly adjust to destabilized ecological environment are biological indicators.

Wetlands (shallow water bodies) play an important role of “a natural sanitary engineer” cleaning water from nitrogenous and other pollution and creating favorable conditions for birds and fish. Urbanization and agricultural production results in decrease of wetlands. Thus, California has lost 91% of its wetland area. Salinization, water depletion, soil erosion, waterlogging, deforestation are the chief signs of ecological stress. Better water monitoring in lower reaches is necessary for assessment of water quality impact on public health. Midstream and watershed surveillance with the use of Remote sensing and Geographic Information System methodologies for climate forecasting and development of risk maps should be more strict. Utilizing sanitary engineers, microbiologists, epidemiologists and public health officials and combining technologies can help to generate a Health Early Warning System preventing epidemic spreading and mass public diseases.

W. Klohn (FAO) – Foodstuff requirements to satisfy hunger are small in developing countries in comparison with the global volume of food produced and the potential to increase production. The solution of these problems requires consideration of other interrelated problems: improvement of socio-political and economic condition, control over population growth, increase of agricultural research, investment strategies and land fertility, optimal water resources management, consideration of options of increase of food production, processing, storage, marketing, and distribution, etc.

M. Meybeck (France). Despite regional and global efforts (since the 1970’s) our knowledge of water quality and its pollution by organic substances and metals is still much incomplete. Even in advanced industrialized countries very high pollution levels can still be found (exceeding 10 to 50 times natural background) for a number of metals such as As, Cd, Hg, Pb, Zn, NO₃^-, NH₄⁺, PO₄^-3, and they peaked in the 1970’s and 1980’s. Ammonia, faecal coli and dissolved oxygen issues have improved as the result of construction of water-treating facilities. Nitrate pollution attributable to the use of agricultural fertilizers continues to increase in all rivers of Western Europe. In the Former Soviet Union significant water quality improvement is not always observed and worsening of water quality is locally observed, for example, Lake Sevan and in Central Asia. The experience of developed countries shows that the recovery time of aquatic ecosystems takes 2 or 3 times as much as the contamination period particularly for large lakes and groundwaters (renewal time from 10 too 100 years). By making use of optimization models, it is necessary to assess and forecast global chemical, physical and biological changes of water resources allowing for future climatic changes, population growth, and water consumption dynamics. At the present time, the most sensitive areas with fast growing populations, water resources depletion and limited pollution controls including Middle East, Central Asia, Northern Mexico and South West USA, parts of India, Brazil, China and the southern Mediterranean region are in the center of attention of International Organizations (WHO/UNEP, 1991).

Robarts, Richard D. (WHO and UNEP, Global monitoring of water resources). The study of water quality, establishment of criteria of its assessment are indispensable for improvement of environmental control laws and regulation. Waterborne diseases involve a variety of bacteria, viruses and protozoans. Little knowledge of the distribution of these microorganisms in water systems does not contribute to establishment of criteria and guideline values for them. According to WHO, infectious diseases caused 3 million deaths in 1995, 80% if these in children less than 5 years of age. 99 million reported gastrointestinal infections in the US of which as many as 33% may involve exposure to water-borne pathogens. The damage from these diseases (medical costs and lost labur productivity) have been estimated to cost $23 billion per year in the US alone. During the water quality control operations in 72 municipalities in Canada protozoen patogten Giardia cysts were found in 21% of raw water samples, in 18,2% of clean water samples and in 73% of sewage samples. The existing methods of determination of pathogenic elements in drinking water are rather expensive. The cost of analytical determination with the use of immunofluorescence assay method or that of cytometric cell sorting is $175-275. The WHO is concerned about the emergence of some 29 new diseases in the last 20 years that are badly studied yet and require urgent measures to detect them and stop their spread.

J. K. Sial and S. Mahmood (Pakistan) – The use of nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture in Pakistan up to 56-125 kg/ha contributes to contamination of underground water and drinking water sources. The rural population that mainly uses (up to 60-70%) small wells is subjected to groundwater contamination. The situation worsens given that 30% of 16,4 mil ha of irrigated land are drowned and have watertable within 150 cm from ground surface. The authors experimentally proved that by applying different methods such as mechanical soil cultivation (cultivation and plowing) and irrigation regime, the nitrogenous fertilizer leaching and filtration water beyond 120 - 150 cm could be considerably reduced.

G. M. Chernogaeva, N.I. Koronkevich (Russia) – made an analysis of water resources use and change in water quality in Russia for the period of 1965 – 1995. The economic crisis in Russia influenced water consumption and river water quality. On the whole, in 1995 GNP decreased by 40%, industrial production went down by 50-55%, agricultural production decreased by 35%. The volume of water consumption on the whole decreased by 20% as compared with 1989. Industrial and agricultural water consumption went down by 30-35% while the volume of reused water decreased by 20%. The total volume of waste effluents in Russia decreased by 1,3 times, while runoff contamination decreased only by 1,15 times. The main sources of waste water contamination include municipal economy (51%), industry (35%) and agriculture (13%). Owing to simultaneous decrease in efficiency of water protection measures, decrease in water consumption did not result in improvement of quality of river waters; moreover, a more sever river contamination by oil products, metallurgical, chemical industry and heat-power engineering runoffs was observed.

E.Z. Stakhiv (USA) – The US Army Corps of Engineers made an assessment and forecast of water resources use in the basins of seven US rivers and the impact of different scenarios of climate change on dynamics of water resources. Sound contemporary water management can adapt to different scenarios of water change that are inaccurately forecasted so far. Climate change forecasting for the year 2060 show significant data scattering in four models in terms of both decrease and increase of river runoffs. Climate changes can be compensated by other social-economic measures. A complex of effective water resources management should include new monitoring data, rules of control and operation, modern technologies that serve to balance of available water and demand. Forecast indicators should be constantly corrected when long-term forecasts are made. Thus, the most recent population projections (UN, 1998) significantly differ from projections made six years ago (1992). Birth rates and fertility rates have dropped dramatically in 19 developing countries among which are China, Brazil, Thailand and Malaysia.

C. Yangbo (China) – The Northern China is the main zone of cotton and wheat production and advanced economy suffers from severe scarcity of water resources reaching 70 km³/yr. The water resources per capita is 442 m³ a year, with average values for all China being 2500 m³ per capita. To ensure future water supply to this region the Three Gorges Project will be carried out. At the first stage, the project will supply the region with 30 km³ of water per year from the southern regions that have excess of water resources. At the second stage of construction, the water to be transferred is about to 70 km³ per year. The construction of facilities began in 1994 and will be completed in 17 years. The volume of the Three Gorges Reservoir is 39,3 km³, the height of dam is 175 m. It will be built in midstream of Yangtze River and become the largest hydroproject in the world with discharge capacity of 116000 m³/sec. The reservoir will connect the Yangtze with the Xiangxi River basin.

P. Vakkilainen, O. Varis (Finland)– The forecast of water resources use, foodstuff, urbanization and population growth should take into account many uncertainties and unpredictability of economic growth, political, social, climatic and ecological changes of the world market. 1970’s are characterized by growth of cultivated and irrigated lands and total volume of foodstuff outstripping the population growth. For the last years, a trend towards decrease of foodstuff and wheat production per capita to the level of 1970’s has become evident. In developing countries urbanization growth contributive to decrease of rural population from 80% to 50% takes place. By the year 2025 the rural population decrease will have reached 30%. The GDP of the countries of South and South East Asia forecasted by the World Bank showed 4,5% growth. However, currencies in these countries dramatically gone down (up to 80% of their value) due to financial crisis. Asia Africa, Latin America and the CIS countries suffer the same instabilities that are reflected throughout today’s globalizing world. Political instability brought about civil wars in the countries of the Nile basin (with the exception of Egypt), and other regions of the world. People making decisions in their countries should take into account interdisciplinarity and integration in global water assessments. Water resources use should be considered in closer connection with social, economic, financial, environmental, political and institutional issues. In developing countries more attention should be paid to capital investments in agriculture, food self-sufficiency; it is necessary to produce products as close to consumers as possible. Developed countries should decrease the level of trade barriers, and extend soft credits to developing countries.

O. Varis (Finland) – An attempt was made to analyze the condition of global water resources that are under pressure – hunger, poverty and global urbanization. Materials on key areas were collected and analyzed: China, South Asia, South East Asia, the Nile Basin countries, and the Sahel West Africa. The time horizon is from 1970 to 1990. A forecast up to 2025 was also made. For a comparative assessment of the analyzed regions single criteria by six indicators were used: 1) water resources scarcity; 2) population structure; 3) population growth rates; 4) urbanization and megacity growth; 5) population income by gradations. Quantitative assessment of forecasted water resources that takes into account integral interdisciplinary approach to interaction with nature, technology and society hasn’t been completed yet.

D. Prinz, S. Wolfer (Germany) – Increase of water resources scarcity in arid zone requires the revival of traditional ancient methods of water conservation in rainy season and its use in drought periods in the zones of dry land farming. Traditional technique may include:

1. Better use of rainfall: a) minimization of runoff losses (in combination with increased infiltration); b) collection and concentration of rainfall; c) minimization of evaporation and transpiration losses; better use of rainwater by plants

2. Use of fog and dew: a) by collection of fog drips; b) dew harvesting

3. Use of underground water without water lifting: a) creation of quanat systems; b) artesian wells; c) horizontal wells

These systems were have been practiced in many dry and semi-dry zones in Northern Africa, Middle East, Central Asia, Latin America and other countries since millennia. For example, in Iran there are still 40000 quanats with total length of underground wells up to 270000 km that supply 35% of the country’s water. These ancient methods of water conservation should be modernized with contemporary technical achievements in mind, and the modernization itself should be accompanied by hydrological and climate forecast of water resources and economic use.

International Seminar on Issues of Rational Use of Water

and Energy Resources in the Central Asian Region

(Project on nature protection policy and technologies – USAID,

Issik-Kul, July 20-24, 1998)

The heads of Ministries of Agriculture and Water Management, energy and environment, water bodies of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tadjikistan and Uzbekistan conducted meetings on July 20-24, 1998, Lake Issik-Kul, for discussion of issues of rational use of water and energy resources of the Central Asian Region. The Seminar considered the issues of implementation of the Agreement of March 17, 1998 on the Integrated Use of Water and Energy resources of the Syr-Darya River Basin allocated for five years with annual correction of complex use of water and energy resources of the Narin-Syrdarya cascade of water reservoirs (for 1998).

The Republic of Tadjikistan expressed its wish to join the existing agreements. The Meeting was conducted with the financial assistance of the American Agency for International Development (USAID) and technical cooperation of the USAID Project on Nature Protection Policy and Technologies (NPPT). For preliminary basis of exchange of fuel and power and water resources the Agreement takes into account 1994-1997 bilateral agreements as well as adherence of heads of five Central Asian states to sustainable development of the Aral Sea basin. The participants of the Seminar expressed their wish to intensify the activities of the Commission for Sustainable Development under the International Fund for the Aral Sea Basin (IFAS) in accordance with the principles of the Nukus (1995) and Almaty (1997) Declarations The Seminar also approved a joint statement of the Ministers of Ecology of Central Asia on mutual cooperation, preparation of a report “Central Asia: Ecological Assessment” as well as their wish to set up a Regional Environmental Center (REC) for the countries of Central Asia, which were presented at the Fourth Conference of Ministers “Environment for Europe (Aarhus, Denmark, June 23-25, 1998). Considering the experience of their work in the Syr-Darya River basin, the participants of the Seminar worked out a proposal to prepare an Interstate Agreement on Rational Use of Water and Energy Resources of the Amu-Darya River and invited Turkmenistan to join this Agreement. The experts of the USAID Project on Nature Protection Policy and Technologies (NPPT) carried out a number of surveys on current implementation of Agreement and that of in perspective including (1) creation of general information data base that will be the basis for making current decisions on the Syr-Darya river basin; (2) variants of solutions of possible disputes in the framework of the Agreement on the Syr-Darya river basin on the basis of the international experience; (3) examples of the international experience in the policy of water quality control on regional scale and their possible use in Central Asia; (4) economic aspects of implementation of Agreement on the Syr-Darya River, the experience of Central Asia as well as other countries, the USA in particular, in the field of water price formation. The Meeting worked out an Action Plan finalizing the dates of implementation of the Agreement on the Use of Water and Energy Resources of the Syr-Darya River basin. Working parties in charge of modeling and creation of information database for decision making in the field of the Syr-Darya River water and energy resources management were organized. The analogous working party will be organized to solve the problems of river water quality control. The USAID confirmed its intention to support the Executive Committee of the Interstate Council and cooperating organizations in the cause of further development of the region, mutual understanding and other relations between the countries of Central Asia through conclusion of interstate agreements and the practice of the use of water and energy resources in transboundary river basins. Further, it is necessary to take steps to ensure implementation of the Agreement of March 17, 1998 on the Syr-Darya River Basin and other measures aimed at improvement of water and energy resources management in the Central Asian Region.

Examples of International Conflicts Related to Water

(the USAID Review)

For many years transboundary rivers the Danube, the Elbe, the Ganges, the Indus, the Mekong the Parana, the Rhine, the Colorado, the Rio Grande, the Syr-Darya, the Yarmuk, the Nile and others have been the sources of conflict due to water resources deficit, industrial and agricultural pollution, growth of water salinity, power engineering and irrigation conflict of interests, extreme floods, uncoordinated water resources dam, reservoir management, reservoir silting, river bank scour, loss of recreation zones and other factors. Due to the lack of unified international water management, water use and water sharing laws that would take into consideration conflicting demands of different countries and different water users, in practice this complex process is regulated by international agreements and on voluntary compensation basis allowing for the interests of all states of the river basin. Illustrative examples are given below:

Doctrines of resolving conflicts: absolute territorial sovereignty; absolute territorial integrity of the region; top-priority water use; limited territorial sovereignty and limited territorial integrity of the region, community of interests; just water use; maximum mutual benefit.

Absolute territorial sovereignty: The state has the right to use any amount of water flowing into its territory for use or liquidation of pollution. This doctrine is characteristic of some developing countries.

Absolute territorial integrity of the region: the state situated in the downstream of the river claim the right to continuous supply of clean water in fixed amount from the states situated in the upstream water. This doctrine is characteristic of the attitude of Egypt over streamflow of the Nile. The availability of a strong army to support the given doctrine promotes the doctrine.

Top-priority water use: the first users have the right to continuous use of water resources; the right to water may be transmitted provided that the transmission of rights didn’t inflict damage on other water users. The Colorado River and many other rivers in arid areas may serve as an example of top priority water use.

Limited territorial integrity of the region, sovereignty: every state has the right to use water flow located in its territory provided that this water use does not inflict damage on the territories or interests of other states; the given doctrine acknowledges the rights and responsibilities of states in the water use issues and illustrates the most general approach; the doctrine favors both historical water users and traditions of water use.

Community of interests: None of the states has the right to use water resources that are in its jurisdiction without consultations and cooperation with the states situated in downstream. This doctrine is characteristic of the position of the European Union.

Just water use: every state of the river basin has the right to a reasonable and just share of water resources for use and liquidation of pollution, readiness to take into consideration the needs of other states. This doctrine is characteristic of distribution of water from the Mississippi and other rivers among certain states in the USA. The water of several rivers is distributed among the states basing on this doctrine.

Maximum mutual benefit: the attempts to guarantee water supply to the most valuable consumers in the basin of the river; the water consumers effect payments, which are a partial or full compensation to those who pay attention to historical distribution of water resources. This doctrine is characteristic of water supply management is realized in the Central California Valley Project and in the Agreement on the Use of Water Resources of the Basin of the Syr-Darya River.

International Programs on Improvement of Water Quality

The Rhine River: flows through Switzerland, Germany, France, Luxembourg and Netherlands; there were signed chronologically the First International Forum (agreement) in 1950; the Bern Convention (based on the International Law) – 1963; Convention on Chemical Substances and Chloride Protection; approval of action plan on a ministerial level (achieve 50% decrease in each of 50 chemical substances by 1995) – 1987.

The Jordan River: flows through the territory of Syria, Israel, Jordan; some problems are identified here including the problem of water flow distribution, growth of water salinity, industrial pollution, municipal and agricultural discharges, conflicts over wetland drain, water intake, dam construction. Multilateral economic conferences were held, a general plan “Jordan Rift Valley” was proposed where the role of the third countries – concessions of the strong participants to weaker ones is significant.

The Colorado River: There were signed the 1994 Treaty between the USA and Mexico on distribution of water flow. Mexico receives 1,85 km³, the USA – 18,5 km³; introduction of amendments to the Treaty on Quality of Water (mainly on water salinity); realization of the Treaty (the Treaty also includes water-treating facilities on the border with the USA).

The Danube River: 17 participating countries. Malicious polluters are industry of Romania and agriculture of Germany; the most serious problem is industrial pollution as well as municipal and agricultural discharges; significant studies were made and assistance offered by a third party; there is still no any general agreement, there is only a Bilateral Treaty on Protection of the Black Sea between Romania and Bulgaria.

General issues of transboundary water quality control: political questions should be settled in the first place; the states agree to study the water quality condition. It is necessary to establish an organization that will work out recommendations; the recommendations should take into consideration scientific and economic aspects (the price of clean water and capacity to pay); the states approve the recommendations and realize the action plan.

Water quality control: the expenses are likely to exceed the benefits of many programs aimed at improvement of water quality; the goals of improvement the water quality are not achieved; many problems of water pollution are difficult to resolve; the current policy of control is likely to increase the gap between expenses and benefits.

Economic instruments of water quality control: payments and charges for effluents discharge (collected in many countries including the Central Asian countries). These payments are often not high enough to achieve the desired result; permission to discharge effluents may be an example of trade (USA and Australia); payments for pollutants (such as fertilizers and pesticides); subsidies for investments into control over industrial, municipal and agricultural pollution sources; a demand for accountability (the list of toxic discharges in the USA and the corresponding programs in Australia, Great Britain, Denmark, Mexico and other countries); responsibility for damage inflicted on natural resources by toxic pollutants and petroleum compounds discharge.

Possible ways to use market approaches in Central Asia: demand for accountability (for example, introduce water quality control data into Internet); payment for discharge (used in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan). If the amount of payments sufficient? What is the trend in changes? Responsibility for damage inflicted by severe pollution (in Central Asia it is used in respect of material wealth but not in respect of natural resources); payments for pollutants; subsidies to municipal treatment facilities and for improvement of agriculture.

What is the future? Maximization of mutual benefits with the help of economic instruments: available water resources of the river basins are put up for an auction or sold to the buyers who offered the biggest bid. The nature is considered as a buyer with capital based on calculated value of natural environment; external impact of pollution is controlled by means of decrease in the volume of discharge in order to improve the water quality; the right to discharge a limited amount of pollutants is sold to the buyers who offered the biggest bid; in the correction period the buyers receive compensation.

Presumable results: the states will draw sufficient income (distribution among states is a political question); economic values created by water will significantly increase; there will be enough water for those who really need it. There will not be shortage of water, the agricultural activity will decrease, while industrial and municipal water use will increase. The nature will win.

International Seminar on Regional Cooperation

on Water and Energy Resources Use in Central Asia

(Issik-Kul, July 1-4, 1998, Soros Foundation)

Over 60 specialists from the Central Asian countries, OSCE, USA. Canada, Poland, Australia, Moldavia, the Ukraine, Russia and other countries participated in the meeting. The participants analyzed the immediate situation in water and energy resources in the Aral Sea Basin, identified the necessary technical and organizational measures to ride out the economic crisis and discussed the issues of monitoring and water resources contamination, introduction of pay water use in branches of national economy, particularly in irrigated farming. Owing to the ecological accident on the Barckaun river (falling into Lake Issik-Kul) on May 23, when 1762 kg of sodium cyanide were discharged into the river from containers used in gold mining by CAMECO, a Canadian company, on high mountain mine field. The participants also discussed the issues of impact of mining industries and their wastes on surface and underground water contamination. Natural calamities in the form of mud flow, earthquakes and anthropogenic impacts including transport, construction and exploitation effects represent a danger of breaches of slurry reservoirs and tailing dumps and increase of filtration from their beds.

In most of the river basins in the territory of Central Asia there are historically developed water management systems based on the conditions of joint use of water resources and communion of interests of people inhabiting it. A huge complex of unique hydrotechnical constructions, dams and water reservoirs built through decades made it possible to reach a high level of river flow regulation, particularly that of the Syr-Darya river basin and provided conditions for vital activity for tens of millions of people living here. The existing water management complex transforms the natural water regime to meet changing in time requirements of different water users, irrigated farming, power engineering, industry, domestic water supply, and natural ecological systems (the Aral Sea, river deltas, etc.).

Conjunctive use of water and energy resources of the rivers’ basin is impossible without effective management system ensuring a normal operation and development. The existing management system requires improvement adjusted to new political and economic realia, which in their turn require reconsideration of regulations on shared water use.

There are no unified and generally recognized norms of water use on trans-boundary rivers in the world, many legal questions are still awaiting their solution and trigger off conflicts between states. Solution of these questions is hindered by water laws adopted by the states and by approaches to property law that increase separatism and do not contribute to rapprochement of views on shared water use conditions. On the other hand, the countries of the basin rivers try to avoid energy dependence on each other preferring less efficient energy facilities (heat power industry) located in their own territories.

Head of Governments signed a number of agreements, established interstate structures aimed at decreasing water management resources pressure in the Aral Sea basin, development, use, protection and management of water resources, operative annual correction plans of water use depending on forecasts of water content of the river basins. In 1992 an Agreement on Cooperation in the field of joint management, use and protection of water resources of interstate resources was signed in Almaty, and the Interstate Water Management Commission was established; in 1993 an Agreement on Joint Efforts on Solution of the Aral Sea and the Aral Sea Zone problems, Ecological Rehabilitation and Provision of Socioeconomic Development of the Aral Sea Region was signed in Kysil-Orda; in 1994 the necessity for a contemporary water division was stated in Nukus. Later, at the level of Prime Ministers of the four republics the Executive Committee of Interstate Council for solution of practical questions of water resources management and protection was established. On March 17, 1998 an Agreement on the Use of water and energy resources of the Syr-Darya River Basin as well as a Bilateral Agreement between Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan on Further Development of Hydropower Resources of the Narin River Basin were signed by Prime Ministers. In compliance with these agreements, the creation of irrigation regime for the Toktogul water reservoir located in Kyrgyzstan use in summer is compensated by electric power and fuel supply by Uzbekistan and Kazahstan.

Mining industry in Central Asia and Environment

(R.Razakov)

The Central Asian Region is characterized by rich mineral resources base that has stimulated an intensive development of mining and processing industries for the last 40-50 years. Coal, copper, zinc, lead and uranium concentrations, gold, mercury and antimony, etc. were intensely mined with application of imperfect technological techniques of processing and the use of mainly open methods, without proper nature protection measures. These facilities are more often located in the mountain and piedmont zones, in upper reaches where a high seismicity, probability of mud flow, landslide phenomena increasing the risk of tailing dumps and slurry reservoirs are observed. Most of these accumulators of toxic substances are constructed without satisfactory antifiltration cover or just without it and this results in underground water contamination.

The biggest mining facilities are located in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Tadjikistan. Particular grave danger for river water contamination represent tailing dumps of the Kumtor gold mining plant located at the absolute height of 4000 m which prospective volume of cyanide-bearing waste is up to 100 mil m³ (I. T. Aitmatov, I. A. Torgoev et al., 1998). This facility is in the zone of regional and global warming, pulsation of glaciers, mudflows and floods of glaciological origin, let alone high regional seismicity.

Mining of antimony (Kadamjoi settlement) and mercury (Haidarkan and Chauvai settlements) in the upper reaches in the Fergana Valley contaminate the Isfaramsai, the Shahimardan, the Isfara, the Sokh rivers and tributaries of the Syr Darya river with arsenic, lead, barite, zinc, chromium, nickel, cadmium and other salts. In the Northern part of the Valley there are polymetal tailing dumps of the Sumsar mining plant from which 50 thou m³ of waste containing heavy metals was washed out by flood. The Shekaftar uranium mining plant also located near Sumsar plant; its non-recultivated tailings dumpted the flood plain. In the middle reach of the Maili-Su River, a tributary of the Syr Darya River there is uranium processing waste that is stored in 23 tailing pits and 13 surface dumps of non-conditioned ores, the total volume of which is 4 mil tons. The stored radioactive wastes were from a local uranium mining plant and were also brought from other regions of Kyrgyzstan, Tadjikistan, Eastern Germany, Czechoslovakia and other countries. The activization of geological processes represents a threat of tailing and surface dump destruction their washout and contamination of the Syr-Darya River.

There are over 650 mining enterprises, plants and oil fields, mines and open-pit mines; moreover, their number continues to grow. The total volume of wastes in different storage sites reaches 2 billion tons of which 1,3 billion tons falls on mining and processing complexes (National Report of State Committee for Nature Protection, Republic of Uzbekistan, 1996). The biggest facilities include the Almalyk metallurgical plant mining copper and zinc and producing copper-zinc compounds, the Navoi plant mining gold and producing uranium concentrates, and the Angren bevey coal fields. Some of these facilities are radioactive. Uranium has been mined in Yangiabad, Uchkuduk, Chorkesar for thirty years. All these mining plants face the problem of waste recultivation.

The Zarafshan River Valley is characterized by high anthropogenic pressure attributive to operations of mining and processing industries and other branches of national economy. Before construction of a storage reservoir the pulp from the Anzob antimony plant (Tadjikistan) was washed out into the Yagnob River, in the upper riches of the Zerafshan River, during flood periods for a long time. At the present time, a gold mining plant was recently built in this zone. In the lower reach of the Zerafshan River, in the South ore mining plant uranium ore was mined, and in Ingichka settlement wolfram ore was mined. Gold, uranium, and phosphorite ore is mined and processed in the Navoi Region. In the lower reach of the Zerafshan River in the Bukhara Region gas was recovered in big volumes for gas supply of the European part of the former Soviet Union and the Ural industry; today, oil recovery and processing is underway there. Transition of the Central Asian countries towards market economy, scarcity of means and capital investments into monitoring, assessment of ecological impact of the above-mentioned facilities on natural environment, surface and ground water contamination, determination of damage inflicted on national economy, recultivation measures requires attention and means of international organizations and donors.

Experience of Foreign Countries in Mining and the Problems of Environment Protection

Development of mining industry tells on environment. The World practice has many examples when mining corporations contaminate water, destroy lands and “vanish” failing to rehabilitate them and leaving moon landscapes if there are no strict nature protection limitations and requirements, and ecological monitoring. The US experience in ore filed exploitation going back to the past is of interest to us. The new legislation on nature protection framed here for the last twenty years that regulates the mining processes has become one of the strictest in the world. Many new legislative acts were a response to accidents on mines and catastrophes that took place there and cost much to the state and companies economically and ecologically. The analysis of a number of accidents on the mines illustrates a negative impact of metal mining on ecology and public health. Only in Colorado State alone, there are over 20 thousand mines that are left without recultivation and about 12 watercourses contaminated with salts of heavy metals exceeding the norms and have high acidity. The total waste of the US mining industry amounts to 620 mil tons per year (the Institute of the World Analysis, 1996). Gold was particularly intensively mined in the US and its volume increased from 3 tons in 1980 up to 30 tons in 1990. Moreover, acutely toxic sodium cyanide is used for separation of gold from powder ore. The volume of its use for this period increased up to 125000 tons. Some examples of accidents are given below.

Cyanide spill from the tailing pond base (0,5 mil m³) at the Summitville mine in Colorado (1992) contributed to contamination of 27 km of the Alamosa River, a tributary of the Rio Grande River and inflicted damage of $50 million on the environment, wildlife and farmers of the St Louis. The company worked in compliance with the old legislative requirements and did not furnish a security deposit for recultivation and construction of water-treating facilities, therefore, the state assumed all expenses incidental to recultivation and construction of water-treating facilities after the company went bankrupt. In 1995, a retaining wall of a tailing pond at the Omai gold Mine failed, releasing four million m³ of cyanide laced waste into the Omai and Essequibo rivers. Within three days, the toxic water traveled 80 km downstream ruining all animate nature. In 1990, after extremely heavy rains, a similar failure occurred at Brewer gold mine in South Carolina causing 45 thousand m3 of sodium cyanide to flood a tributary of the Lynches River. COMINCO company, Alaska, paid a $4,7 million fine for contamination of surface and underground water at Red Dog Mine, the biggest lead and zinc mine field, violation of Clean-Water Law and the damage inflicted on fish sprawnings. Moreover, $3 million of this sum the company will spend on the Nature Conservation Project. Strong environment laws and public demands forced NEW WORLD MINE Company to stop gold mining next to Yellowstone National Park. President of the USA, Bill Clinton prohibited gold mining there stating that Yellowstone is more costly than gold.

The Associated Press Agency and other newspapers called the B. Clinton’s action “an example of responsible attitude of the government to people”. Even stringent standards do not save natural resources from contamination, therefore, big companies ”sparing their nature” concentrated their efforts in other countries where ecological laws and their observance are not so strict, and where the role of NGOs is not yet significant, particularly on Russia, Central Asia and other developing countries.

The Republics of Central Asia should use a foreign experience of nature protection structures and mining companies in their practice:

1. Introduction of compulsory security deposit and its annual correction after consideration of the real damage inflicted on environment. In the US the sum of security deposit reaches $8-24 million. The security deposit is returned after a complete recultivation of mine

1. Demand for annual companies’ report on nature protection measures, monitoring and recultivation plans

2. Financing nature protection inspectors, the public and lawyers for the period of mining facility construction at the expense of companies

3. Creation of training sites on recultivation of all types of mining pilot sites and mines on the whole

A. It is necessary that the project documentation on mine field exploitation include a program of background survey (ecological assessment of the territory, components of ecosystems, ecological monitoring, etc.); contingency plan for emergency situations; recultivation plan; information about public listeners’ result

B. A special attention should be paid to completeness and thoroughness of project documentation submitted to specialists for ecological assessment, particularly the location of mine element; availability of underground water, river network, amount precipitation data on the drainage system and mine water pumping, pulp transportation into containment pond, location of the plant relatively the tailing pond, the system of groundwater protection; location of storing area for rockfall, the system of daily quality control over underground, surface, ground and drainage water.

C. At the stage of design, building and operation of mining plant it is necessary to attract highly qualified specialists to cooperation; to constantly exchange experience, increase the level of knowledge of miners and the workers of nature protection companies.

Meeting of Interstate Commission for Sustainable Development

of the Central Asian States (ICSD)

(May 19, 1998, Tashkent)

The meeting held on May 18-20, 1998 at the State Committee of Nature Protection of Uzbekistan was attended by 44 participants including the Ministers or Chairmen of Committees for Environment Protection of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tadjikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, the Heads of Scientific Informational Center (SIC) of ICSD), representatives of the UN Economic Commission, Tasic, World Bank, Embassy of the USA and NGOs. The meeting discussed the following questions:

· Organizational issues regarding the composition of the ICSD.

· Report on the Activities of the Secretariat of the ICSD and RIC of the ICSD.

· Implementation of the Action Plan of the ICSD approved at the meetings in Bishkek on August 28, 1996 and in Almaty on December 12, 1996.

· Cooperation of the ICSD with the UNDP Projects on the Aral Sea Basin.

· Interaction of the ICSD with the International Fund for saving the Ara Seal (IFAS) and the Interstate Coordination Water Commission (ICWC).

· Establishment of the Regional Ecological Center (REC).

· Consideration and approval of the Action Plan of the ICSD for 1998 and for the future.

· Consideration and approval of the Action Plan of the SIC of the ICSD for 1998 and for the future

A resolution was made to approve:

1. The Action Plan of ICSD for 1998-1999 that includes the following projects on: a) formulation of principles of assessment and indicators of sustainable development; b) working out “Convention on Sustainable Development of the Aral Sea Basin”; c) preparation for conduct of conferences and seminars on the problems of nature protection policy and sustainable development.

2. In compliance with the Resolution of the Board of the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea (March 12, 1998) on Financing of the SIC of the ICSD and its Branches in All Republics (three persons) using the dues of founder-states, to work out a regulation on interaction of ICSD and its SIC with the IFAS and ICWC. Convene a meeting of the SIC of the ICSD and work out the Action Plan for 1998-1999.

3. Approve the establishment of the Regional Ecological Center (REC) under the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

It was proposed to begin the implementation of the projects planned for 1998-1999 with financial assistance of the IFAS, the UNDP Project “Development of potential of the Aral Sea”, Ministries and Committees for Nature Protection of the five republics. Unfortunately, the Main SIC of the ICSD and its divisions are still not fully staffed and do not function. This situation remains unchanged since 1996 and all resolutions of the ICSD are still not implemented; thus Resolution of the Heads of the Aral Sea Basin countries, International Organizations (UNDP and others) on working out the UN Convention on Sustainable Development in the Aral Sea Basin covering social, economic and ecological problems of development (the Nukus and Almaty Declarations) remains to be unrealized.

Meeting of Interstate Coordination Task Group on Joint Work

on Rehabilitation of Tailing Dumps

and Mining Wastes Making a Transboundary Impact

(Bishkek, August 6-7, 1998)

Since 1996-1997 the task group has met at three meetings (Jalal-Abad, Osh, Andijan), at which they discussed the transboundary object Maili-Suu in greater details, the group also partially discussed the Sumsar, Shekaftar, Haidarkan and Kadamdjai facilities. Uzbekistan’s Specialists have made radiological, engineering – geological survey of uranium damps in Maili-Suu. On the whole, the current situation in the Maili-Suu Valley does not represent any danger to the population except tailings storage No 18 and ore tailings washed out by the river. As the rockslide gains strength, the washout of tailing dumps No 3,5,7 with the volume of toxicants of one million m³ becomes possible. It is necessary to exercise control over the rockslide and prevent its movement, and to do repair works to strengthen tailing dumps and to rehabilitate drainage system and drain lines. The Kyrgyz party did reinforcement works in tailing dumps No 2,3,4,13. The meeting adopted the program of works for 1998–2004:

- first priority trans-border facilities that require study and rehabilitation are eight facilities – Maili-Suu, Aktyuz, Sumsar, Shekaftar, Kadamjai, Haidarkan, Degmai. The facilities are located in Kyrgyzstan and Tadjikistan;

- as regards Maili-Suu facility, it is necessary to develop the following projects on: a) transference of radioactive wastes to a safe place; b) strengthening of “Tektonic” rockslide; c) continuation of monitoring of rockslide development, tailing dump rehabilitation work, reconstruction of drain line systems;

- making inventory of tailing dumps and ore dumps and assess their qualitative composition and technical condition, make maps of ecological risk for the basins of the Syr-Darya, the Zerafshan, the Chu, the Pyandj and other rivers;

- work out legislative and normative acts that envisage legal regulation of the whole complex of works on protection of the bowels of the earth and environment;

- attract specialists from Russia to participation in the planning works with participation finance sharing of works, submit the materials of the projects on existing tailing dumps.

UNDP Regional Seminar on “Conception and Instruments of Sustainable Development”

(July 6-10, 1998, Tashkent)

The Seminar organized in the framework of the UNDP Project “Development of Potential of the Aral Sea Basin” was attended by the representatives of the Research Information Center (RIC) of the Interstate Commission for Sustainable Development in Central Asia (ICSD) and the National Commission for Sustainable Development of the Republic of Uzbekistan.

The following problems were discussed at the Seminar:

· Integrated environment management

· Fundamentals of the conception and instruments of sustainable development

· Geographic Informational Systems (GIS) and remote sensing methods (RS) of assessment of condition of environment management. Examples of use of GIS and RS in development of the project on environment of impact assesment (EIA) of the right bank collector along the Amu Darya River

· Economic resources management, environmental assessment. Examples of rehabilitation of wetlands in the Aral Sea coastal zone

· Demonstrational model: a) the Rhine Convention and the use of STREAM Program as an instrument for making decisions on river basin management; b) use of the CCX-DSS Program for assessment of climate change and greenhouse effect on water resources

· Training on integral assessment and environment management (the use of EIA as an instrument for planning and assessment; use of indicators of sustainable development, regional conferences, social and legal aspects)

Appendix 1

Calendar of International Conferences on Environment

IHP-project	Title of conferences	Country, date, adress
	Quality,Management and Availabality of Data for Hydrology and Water Recources Management	Koblenz, Germany 22-26 March 1999 fax: +49 261 1306 5422
IHP-V:2.3-2.4	Int. Workshop on “Development and Management of Flood Plains and Wetlands”	Beijing, China May 1999.fax: 86 10 68411174
	International Symposium Towards Co-operation. Utilisation and Co-ordinated Management of International Rivers	Kunming, China 25-30 June 1999 fax: +86-871-5137241
	Water-99 Joint Congress 2^nd Int. Conference on Water Resources&Environment Research	Brisbane, Australia 6-8 Jule, 1999 fax: 07 33 691512
IHP-V Congress	28^th Biennial Congress of the Int. Association for Hydraulic Rasearch	Graz, Austria 22-27 August, 1999 fax: 43-316-873-6264
IHP-V: 8.2	Hydraulic Engineering for Water Harvesting in Arid and Semi-Arad Zones	Cairo, Egypt July, 1999 Cairo office UNESCO
IHP-V	Integrated Drought Management - Lessons for Sub-Saharan Africa	Pretoria, Sauth Africa 20-22 September, 1999 PO.BOX 82.Irene, 0062 S.Africa
	Aguifer Systems in Arid Zones-Managing Non-Renewable Resources	Tripoli, Libia 22-26 November, 1999 UNESCO fax: 33 145 68 5811
IHP-V: 4.1	Regional Workshop on Conflict Analysis in the Middle East	Cairo, Egypt 1999 UNESCO Cairo office
IHP-V:4.1	Workshop related to Conflict Management of Int. River Basins	New Delhi, India 1999 UNESCO, New Delhi office
IHP-V: 3.4	Regional Workshop on Groundwater Contamination	Koblenz, Germany 1999 fax: 0261/1306422
IHP-V	X-th World Water Congress	Melbourne, Australia 11-17 March 2000 fax: 61-3-96820288
	2^nd World Water Forum	The Hague, the Netherlands 17-22 March 2000 fax: +31.70.3486792
	Remote Sensing 2000. Symposium	Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA 3-7 April 2000 fax: +1 301 5048931
	Int. Conference on Tracers and Modelling in Contaminant Hydrogeology	Liege Belgium 22-25 May 2000 fax: +32 4 3662817
	Int. Conference on Groundwater Research	Copenhagen, Denmark 6-8 June 2000 fax: +45 45839727
	Int. Symposium on Variablity in the Nature, Quality and Transport of River Sediments	Waterloo, Canada 10-14 July, 2000 fax: +1-519-7252827
	Int. Symposium on Extraordinary Floods	Reykjavik, Iceland 17-19 July, 2000 fax: +354 562 3345
	8^th-International Symposium on Stochastic Hydraulics	Beijing, China 25-28 July, 2000 fax:+ 8610 68411174

* Continuation. The beginning was published in Bulletin «Problems of Sustainable Development», Issue 2, Tashkent, 1998. Source: Indicators of Sustainable Development Framework and methodologies. 1996. NewYork. UN Commission on Sustainable Development (UNCSD).

* Shiklamanov I.A. Global Renewable Water Resources in: Proceedings of the Int. Conference on World Water Resources at the Beginning of the 21^st Century. UNESCO 1998.

** Seckler D., Rock M. 1997. UN «low» projection of population growth most accurate IFPRI News & Views: A 2020 Vision for food, agriculture and the environment. Washington. Int. Food Policy Res. Inst.

* Gleick P.H. (1996) Basic Water Requirement for Human Activities: Meeting basic needs. Water International 21(2): 83-92.

Problems of Sustainable Development
UNESCO’s Initiative for the Aral Sea Basin (Tashkent, November 6, 1998).........................	3
Indicators of Sustainable Development....................................................................................	5
World Water Demand and Supply (1990-2025): Scenarios and Issues. IWMI Report..........	10
Conception of Sustainable Development for the Republic of Uzbekistan...............................	17

International Meetings on Water problems and Environment Plrotection
The Fourth Ministerial Conference “Environment for Europe” (Aarhus, Denmark, June 23-25, 1998) .......................................................................................	18
“Water: A Looming Crisis?” International Conference on World Water Resources at the Beginning of the 21^st Century...................................................................................................	20

Regional International Meetings in Central Asia
International Seminar of the Inter-Governmental Economic Council and USAID on Efficiency of Water and Energy Resources use in the Central Asian Region (Issik-Kul, June 20-24, 1998).....................................................................................................	26
Examples of International Conflicts Related to Water (the USAID Review) ........................	27
International Seminar “Regional Cooperation, on Water and Energy Resources Use in Central Asia”, Soros Foundation (Issik-Kul, July 1-4, 1998)..................................................	31
Mining Industry in Central Asia and its Impact to Environment. Experience of foreign countries....................................................................................................................................	32
Meeting of Representatives of Inter-Governmental Commission for Sustainable Development of the Central Asian Countries and the UNDP Project (Tashkent, May 19, 1998).........................................................................................................	36
Meeting of the Interstate Coordination Task Group on Joint Work on Rehabilitation of Tailing Dumps and Mining Wastes Making a Transboundary Impact (Bishkek, August 6-7, 1998).......................................................................................................	38

International Seminars, Courses in Central Asia
UNDP Regional Seminar on “Conception and Instruments of Sustainable Development” (Tashkent, July 6-10, 1998).......................................................................................................	39

Appendix
Calendar of Meetings on International Conferences on Environment.....................................	40

International Meetings on Water problems and Environment Plrotection

Regional International Meetings in Central Asia

Appendix

Calendar of Meetings on International Conferences on Environment.....................................

40